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Post by mdenney on Jan 21, 2007 1:03:44 GMT -5
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Post by mdenney on Jan 21, 2007 1:08:14 GMT -5
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Post by mdenney on Jan 21, 2007 1:08:38 GMT -5
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Post by mdenney on Jan 21, 2007 1:08:55 GMT -5
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Post by mdenney on Jan 21, 2007 1:09:20 GMT -5
Holy Childhood of Jesus Church is at 140 West Main St., Harbor Springs, MI 49740. School records there include enrollment books, 1926-1946 which list name, grade, age, place of Students at Holy Childhood School From the 1920 Federal Census Little Traverse Township Emmet County, MI birth , parents, and address; and student files, 1886-present which list name, parents, birth and enrollment dates. Students - 1920 Students - 1900 link below- members.aol.com/RoundSky/holy-child.html
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Post by mdenney on Jan 21, 2007 1:09:48 GMT -5
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Post by mdenney on Jan 21, 2007 1:10:09 GMT -5
Not all Indian children were sent away to school. Some attended the local, non-Indian, schools. These school records can be hard to find. The records for school district 6 in Leelanau county in 1926-1928 were found in an antique shop, and contain the names and ages of the students, many of whom were Indian. STUDENTS AND VISITORS Public Schools - District 6, Suttons Bay Township, Leelanau County link below- members.aol.com/VWilson577/school6.html
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Post by mdenney on Jan 21, 2007 2:15:50 GMT -5
1 Red Lake Students Who Attended Nonreservation Schools Circa 1929 APPENDIX ONE Red Lake Students Who Attended Non reservations Schools Circa 1929 Following is a lengthy but possibly incomplete list of Red Lake tribal members who attended a school other than the on-reservation boarding schools in Redlake or Ponemah, or Saint Mary's Mission in Redlake. The majority of tribal members in off-reservation schools were sent to government residential schools. Around 1929, the 100 women and 100 men on the list were attending boarding schools as follows: 77 at Flandreau ( South Dakota), 44 at Wahpeton ( North Dakota), 18 at Carlisle ( Pennsylvania), 15 at Haskell ( Lawrence, Kansas), 12 at Tomah ( Wisconsin), 3 at Pipestone ( Minnesota), and 2 at Fort Totten ( North Dakota). The remaining 29 students attended public or church-affiliated schools at various locations. NAME ADDRESS SCHOOL ATTENDED Susan Jourdain Anderson Redlake Wahpeton Alice Graves Beaulieu Redlake Flandreau Charles A. Beaulieu Redlake Odanah Charles P. Beaulieu Redlake Flandreau Isabelle Graves Beaulieu Redlake Flandreau Jacob Peter Beaulieu Redby Flandreau James Beaulieu Redlake Tomah Jane Taylor Beaulieu Redlake Flandreau Joseph Beaulieu Redlake Fort Totten Julia Beaulieu Redlake Wahpeton Julia Jane Beaulieu Minneapolis Flandreau Louisa Defoe Beaulieu Redlake Flandreau Paul H. Beaulieu Redlake Minneapolis NAME ADDRESS SCHOOL ATTENDED Salem Geo. Beaulieu Cass Lake Flandreau Simon Beaulieu Redlake Tomah Richard Bellanger Phoenix Haskell Estella Martin Benais Wahpeton Antonio Berard Carlisle Mary Bigwolf Ponemah Flandreau Susie Black Neptune Tomah Francis Blake Redlake Flandreau Bessie Sigana Blakely Ponemah Flandreau John Blakely Ponemah Wahpeton Sarah Blakely Ponemah Wahpeton Julia Branchaud NA NA Benjamin Brown Kansas City Haskell Allen Brun Redlake Wahpeton Mary Brun NA NA Peter Brun Redlake NA Tillie Smith Brun Redlake Wahpeton William Smith Brun Redlake Wahpeton Louis Carl Redlake St. John's Josephine B. Carnes Detroit Flandreau David Chaboille Redlake Flandreau Sophia Chaboille Redlake Haskell George Clark Redby NA Joseph Clark Sr. Redby NA Peter Clark Redby Flandreau Julia Clifford Redlake St. Joseph MN Everett Cloud Ponemah Flandreau Joseph Cobenais Cincinnatti Flandreau Eliza Cook Redlake Haskell Jane Cook Redlake Flandreau Susan Cook Redlake Haskell Renier Cook Redlake Haskell John Defoe Cass Lake NA Charles Dolsen Redlake NA George Fred Dorey Redby Pipestone Harold Downwind Ponemah Flandreau Xavier Downwind Redby Carlisle -102- Eva Kling Edgeworth Milwaukee Haskell Peter English Flandreau Alex Everywind Browning MT Wahpeton Julia Blakely Everywind Ponemah Wahpeton Archie Fairbanks Ponemah Jacob Fairbanks Redlake Flandreau Joseph Fairbanks Redlake Flandreau William Fineday Hawaii Flandreau Florence A. Foy Kelliher Bemidji Mary Foy Norden MN NA Eliza Francisco Redby Haskell John Garrigan Redlake Wahpeton George Gillespie Redlake Flandreau Jennie Gillespie Redlake NA Jane Shubway Graves Redlake Flandreau John Graves Redby Flandreau Joseph Graves Redlake Flandreau Peter Graves Redlake Philadelphia Lucy Kling Green Milwaukee Haskell Henry Greenleaf Ponemah Carlisle Francis Gurneau Redlake Philadelphia Simon Gurneau Redlake Wahpeton John Hanson Redlake Wahpeton Annie Martin Hawk Neptune Wahpeton George Head Redlake Flandreau Gertrude S. Head Ponemah Flandreau Nathan Head McNary AZ NA Roman Head Ponemah Wahpeton Selam Head Redby Wahpeton Simon Head Ponemah Flandreau Edward Holinday Redlake Wahpeton Cora Morgan Howard Ponemah Wahpeton Mary Chase Iah be dub Redlake Haskell Esther Iceman Ponemah Wahpeton Angeline Chase Jefferson Redby Morris MN Frank John Redlake Flandreau Beatrice Jones Johnson Ponemah Flandreau -103- NAME ADDRESS SCHOOL ATTENDED Jennie Johnson Onigum Flandreau Joe Johnson Redlake Flandreau Paul Johnson Ponemah Tomah Philip Johnson Minneapolis Flandreau Stephen Johnson Ponemah Wahpeton Jeanette Jones Redby Flandreau Mary Jane Omen Jones Bemidji Flandreau Alexander Jourdain NA Haskell Alexis Jourdain Redlake Carlisle Baptiste Jourdain Redby Wahpeton Ida Spears Jourdain Ponemah Tomah Joseph Jourdain Redlake Carlisle Joseph B. Jourdain Redlake St. John MN Josie Jourdain Redlake St. Joseph MN Keniew Jourdain Redby Flandreau Margaret J. Jourdain Redlake Flandreau Mary Kane Redlake St. Cloud George Kelley Redlake Wahpeton Nancy Dickenson Kelley Redlake Wahpeton Norman Kelley Redlake Wahpeton August Keniew King Redby Fort Totten Ellen King Redlake St. Joseph MN Samuel Clement King Redlake Flandreau Willie King Redlake Odanah WI Cecil Kingbird Ponemah Flandreau Fannie Kingbird Ponemah Wahpeton Mattie Kingbird Ponemah Wahpeton Scott Kingbird Ponemah Wahpeton Louisa Stone Lam Bemidji Pipestone Sarah M. Lanigan Tigard OR Flandreau Benjamin Lawrence Redlake Carlisle John Lawrence Redlake Flandreau Joseph Lawrence Redlake Flandreau Lillian Lawrence Redlake Carlisle Stella Lawrence Redlake Flandreau Louisa B. Leonzal Redlake Flandreau Curtis Leslin NA Wahpeton -104- NAME ADDRESS SCHOOL ATTENDED Benjamin Littlecreek Redby Carlisle George J. Littledeer Redby Carlisle Gilbert Lussier Redlake St. John MN Isabelle S. Lussier Redlake Haskell Joseph Lussier Redby Flandreau Nancy D. Lussier Redby Haskell Louizon Lussier Redby NA Mary Lussier Redlake Flandreau Mary Lussier Gonvick NA Mary Sophia Lussier Redlake Tomah Mary Sitting Mahto Cass Lake Flandreau Alice Martin NA Flandreau Henry Martin Redlake NA Joseph Martin Leavenworth Flandreau Frank Mason Redlake Flandreau Baptiste Maxwell Redlake Wahpeton Julia T. McGraw Redlake Flandreau Lynda B. McKenzie Redby Flandreau William McKenzie Redby NA George Meley Redlake Flandreau Cordelia Needham Redlake Flandreau Daniel Needham Minneapolis Carlisle James Needham Leavenworth Wahpeton John Needham Redlake Carlisle Rollo Cook Needham Redlake Wahpeton Simon Needham Haskell Haskell Harriet Nelson Redby St. Joseph Ben Stling Ponemah Wahpeton Clara Roy Newell Kelliher Kelliher Rose Nordwall Redby Flandreau Esther Noylan Tigard OR NA Dolly Julia Oakgrove Ponemah Tomah Francis Oakgrove Ponemah Flandreau Joseph Omen Redby NA Anna B. Pemberton Redby NA Lizzie Prentice Redby St. Joseph Paul Prentice Redby Wahpeton -105- Dan Raincloud Ponemah Wahpeton Sam Rainy Redlake Flandreau Benaysee Redeagle Neptune Flandreau Amie Kelley Rossback Redlake Wahpeton Agnes Lussier Sayers Redlake Wahpeton Felix Paul Sayers Redlake Flandreau James Sayers NA Flandreau Jessie Sayers Redlake Carlisle Joseph Clarence Sayers Redlake Flandreau William Sayers Redlake NA Andrew Sigana Ponemah Flandreau Clifford Sitting NA Carlisle Peter Sitting Minneapolis Morris MN Susan Dickenson Slinker Redby Wahpeton Esther D. Smith NA Morris MN Jacob Smith Ponemah Flandreau Josephine L. Smith Redby Flandreau June Smith Gonvick Tomah Rose Smith Redby Tomah Sade Downfeather Smith Ponemah Flandreau Shurman Smith Ponemah Wahpeton John Greeting Spears Ponemah Tomah Lillian Spears Leavenworth Flandreau Peter Spears Redlake Wahpeton Joseph Spees Redby Flandreau James Stand Redlake Carlisle Albert Stately Redlake St. John Angeline Stately Redby Flandreau Benjamin Stately Bemidji Flandreau Louis Stately Redby NA Mary Stately Redby Wahpeton Roman Stately Redby Pipestone Simon Stately Redby Flandreau Clarence Stillday Ponemah Flandreau David Stillday Ponemah Flandreau Elizabeth Strand Kelliher Flandreau Marie Strong Redlake Flandreau -106- NAME ADDRESS SCHOOL ATTENDED Mary Sumner Strong Redlake Flandreau Murphy Sullivan Ponemah Flandreau Agnes Sumner Redlake Wahpeton Irene Sumner Redlake Tomah Joe Sumner Redlake Flandreau John Sumner Redlake Carlisle Joseph J. Sumner Detroit Carlisle Loring Sumner Redlake Wahpeton Simon Sumner Redlake Carlisle William Sumner Redlake Genoa NE Baptiste Thunder Redlake Flandreau Otto Thunder Ponemah Carlisle Moses Ward Redlake Flandreau Julia Wells Guthrie Haskell Josephine T. West Redlake Wahpeton Angeline Whitefeather Ponemah Pipestone Nathan Whitefeather Ponemah Wahpeton Richard Whitefeather Ponemah Wahpeton Source:National Archives, RG 75, Red Lake file, correspondence regarding misc. student matters, box 823.0, decimal correspondence file 722.6-990. -107- APPENDIX TWO Flandreau Enrollment Figures, 1893-1939 Attendance at Flandreau was unusually low in 1900 because of a recent scandal involving Superintendent Leslie D. Davis, who had been in charge of Flandreau since 8 March 1894. Davis had been fired because of "office irregularities." When Charles Pierce took over the superintendency of Flandreau in 1900 he reported, "The condition of the school was deplorable. The year's supply of fuel was exhausted, employees were without pay for nearly six months, and no more funds were available. The school was about half filled with pupils. The capacity of the school was increased to 350 pupils, but owing to factional differences among employees the school had about 175 pupils in attendance" ( U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs, Annual Reports of the Superintendent of Flandreau Indian School, 10 Sept. 1900, NA, RG75, BIA). YEAR CAPACITY ENROLLMENT AVERAGE ATTENDANCE 1893 150 98 86 1894 150 110 91 1896 175 171 150 1898 200 304 204 1900 350 380 175 1901 350 383 339 1905 350 435 401 1907 375 421 392 1911 365 376 301 1912 360 375 373 1915 360 384 341 1919 360 329 238 -108- Questia Media America, Inc. www.questia.com Publication Information: Book Title: Boarding School Seasons: American Indian Families, 1900-1940. Contributors: Brenda J. Child - author. Publisher: University of Nebraska Press. Place of Publication: Lincoln, NE. Publication Year: 1998. Page Number: 108. YEAR CAPACITY ENROLLMENT AVERAGE ATTENDANCE 1923 350 355 348 1927 375 460 412 1929 400 476 433 1932 425 508 461 1934 450 504 452 1937 500 518 417 1939 500 563 431 Source: William M. Kizer, "History of the Flandreau Indian School, Flandreau, South Dakota," unpublished Master's thesis, University of South Dakota, July 1940, 94. -109- Questia Media America, Inc. www.questia.com Publication Information: Book Title: Boarding School Seasons: American Indian Families, 1900-1940. Contributors: Brenda J. Child - author. Publisher: University of Nebraska Press. Place of Publication: Lincoln, NE. Publication Year: 1998. Page Number: 109. APPENDIX THREE Flandreau Enrollment Distributions by Tribe and by State, 1937-38 ENROLLMENT DISTRIBUTION BY TRIBE TRIBE 1896 1919 1929 1938 Sioux 141 156 222 160 Ojibwa 32 102 147 233 Oneida 0 20 28 15 Menominee 0 24 13 19 Assinaboine 0 4 22 4 Gros Ventre 0 3 19 5 Winnebago 0 0 7 8 Blackfeet 0 0 1 13 Ottawa 0 0 0 13 Cheyenne 3 4 0 5 Arikara 0 5 0 6 Crow 0 0 6 3 Sac and Fox 0 4 2 3 Flathead 0 0 4 2 Omaha 0 1 0 4 Shoshone 0 0 0 4 Mandan 0 0 1 2 Ponca 0 1 0 2 Stockbridge 0 0 1 2 Cherokee 0 0 1 1 Potawatomie 0 0 1 1 Arapahoe 0 0 0 1 Cree 0 0 1 0 -110- Questia Media America, Inc. www.questia.com Publication Information: Book Title: Boarding School Seasons: American Indian Families, 1900-1940. Contributors: Brenda J. Child - author. Publisher: University of Nebraska Press. Place of Publication: Lincoln, NE. Publication Year: 1998. Page Number: 110. ENROLLMENT DISTRIBUTION BY STATE, 1937-38 Minnesota 138 South Dakota 102 North Dakota 92 Wisconsin 77 Montana 52 Nebraska 24 Michigan 18 Iowa 6 Wyoming 6 Utah 1 Source: William M. Kizer, History of the Flandreau Indian School, Flandreau, South Dakota, unpublished Master's thesis, University of South Dakota, July 1940, 93. -111-
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Post by mdenney on Jan 21, 2007 2:17:11 GMT -5
APPENDIX FOUR Haskell Institute Cemetery Burials, by Tribal Name on Tombstone Questia Media America, Inc. www.questia.com Publication Information: Book Title: Boarding School Seasons: American Indian Families, 1900-1940. Contributors: Brenda J. Child - author. Publisher: University of Nebraska Press. Place of Publication: Lincoln, NE. Publication Year: 1998. Page Number: 112. APPENDIX FOUR Haskell Institute Cemetery Burials, by Tribal Name on Tombstone NAME TRIBE BIRTH-DEATH DATES AGE Dickson, Annie Arapahoe 1871-1890 19 Hand, Nellie Arapahoe 1871-1886 15 Reynolds, Charley Arapahoe 1871-1888 17 Chaoate, Josephine Asiniboin 1878-1899 21 Carter, Gorman Caddo 1886-1904 18 Edge, Charlie Caddo 1879-1900 21 Gibson, Willie Caddo 1877-1888 11 Guy, John Caddo 1877-1888 11 Barber, Eugene Cheyenne 1877-1885 8 Big Fire, Maggie Cheyenne 1869-1887 18 Buell, James Cheyenne 1869-1886 17 Little Elk, Perry Cheyenne 1875-1888 13 Pendleton, Carrie Cheyenne 1879-1893 14 Walker, Ollie Cheyenne 1875-1886 11 Walker, Susie Cheyenne 1878-1886 8 White Wolf, Harry Cheyenne 1884-1884 .5 Wolf Chief, Jerry Cheyenne 1875-1891 16 Yellow Eyes, Fred Cheyenne 1874-1886 12 Fiddler, Cecilia Mae Chippewa 1923-1943 20 Levali, Patrick Chippewa 1889-1907 18 Perry, Arleight Chippewa 1882-1901 19 Rosseau, Joseph Chippewa 1886-1902 16 -112- NAME TRIBE BIRTH-DEATH DATES AGE Hanneno, Harry Commanche 1868-1891 23 Bronson, Luella Delaware 1892-1902 10 Hanson, David Digger 1890-1910 20 Long, Job Eastern Cherokee 1883-1901 18 Smith, Andrew Eastern Cherokee 1876-1901 25 Concwio, Lomo Hopi 1884-1902 18 Mohajah, Ada Kaw 1878-1893 15 Mohajah, May Kaw 1880-1887 7 Sumner, Fred Kaw 1877-1888 11 Cadue, Sophie Kickapoo 1874-1886 12 Pequah, Nettie Kickapoo 1888-1895 7 Miles, Sadie Miami 1893-1907 14 Prieto, Antonio Mission 1895-1911 16 Ingalls, Fred Modoc 1878-1892 14 McCarty, Agnes Modoc 1870-1886 16 Siler, Peter Mojave 1863-1887 24 Little Eyes, John Northern Cheyenne 1881-1905 24 Sena, Ablicio Navajo 1890-1907 17 Peabody, Johnson Omaha 1892-1901 9 Swamp, Adam Oneida 1878-1892 14 Swamp, Nelson Oneida 1887-1890 3 Webster, Sophia Oneida 1890-1905 15 Cheauteau, Metoro Osage 1872-1888 16 Cheshwalla, Herbert Osage 1866-1885 19 LaForce, Jack Osage 1880-1894 14 Mathews, Ora Osage 1875-1890 15 McGuire, Bird Osage 1869-1887 18 Panther, Charles Osage 1865-1885 20 -113- NAME TRIBE BIRTH-DEATH DATES AGE Thomas, Seth Osage 1867-1885 18 Tuttle, Thomas Osage 1866-1885 19 Big Joe, Christopher Ottawa 1873-1891 18 Peouonca, Ambrose Ottawa 1874-1895 21 Pihabay, George Ottawa 1879-1892 13 Vitolia, Nelson Papago 1888-1901 13 Adams, Charles Pawnee 1884-1900 16 Blackborn, Joseph Pawnee 1879-1889 10 Brockey, Norman Pawnee 1861-1885 24 Cage, Lem Pawnee 1881-1887 6 Clark, George Pawnee 1875-1889 14 Eaves, Edna Pawnee 1877-1888 11 Eyre, Willie Pawnee 1871-1885 14 Hayes, Webb Pawnee 1864-1889 25 Howell, Eberhald Pawnee 1873-1887 14 Lonewalk, Chester Pawnee 1869-1885 16 Meachem, Guy Pawnee 1880-1888 8 Murie, Jesse P. Pawnee 1873-1888 15 Patterson, Josiah Pawnee 1868-1893 25 Pearson, Peter Pawnee 1876-1889 13 Ricketts, Agnes Pawnee 1881-1891 10 White, Clarence Pawnee 1874-1887 13 Williams, Andrew Pawnee 1867-1885 18 King, Lizzie Peoria 1868-1885 17 Banks, Joseph Piute 1869-1889 20 Big Snake, Andrew Ponca 1872-1888 16 Buffalo, Fred Ponca 1869-1886 17 Holmes, Moses Ponca 1871-1886 15 Kimball, Stephen Ponca 1868-1885 17 LeClair, Henry Ponca 1874-1890 16 Burnett, Willie Potawatomi 1886-1901 15 Clark, Frank Potawatomi 1868-1885 17 Lafromboise, Cora Potawatomi 1872-1885 13 -114- NAME TRIBE BIRTH-DEATH DATES AGE Momduka, John Potawatomi 1880-1895 15 Pahmahine, Mary Potawatomi 1893-1900 7 Vallier, Samuel Quapaw 1877-1888 11 Campbell, Martha Seminole 1870-1888 18 Riley, Mary Seminole 1871-1888 17 Evans, George C. Shawnee 1882-1894 12 Moharty, Jonah Shawnee 1871-1891 20 Little Wolf, Thomas Sioux 1897-1908 11 Rough Feather, Chas. Sioux 1886-1904 18 Sears, Willie Sioux 1872-1888 16 Lew, Caleb Ukie 1895-1913 18 Taylor, John Ute 1876-1902 26 Hall, Lee Wichita 1874-1899 25 Big Tree, Chester Winnebago 1873-1888 15 Hanson, Willie Winnebago 1882-1902 20 Longmarsh, Barrett Winnebago 1886-1904 18 Beaver, James Wiandotte 1876-1888 12 Quein, Charles Wyandotte 1883-1902 19 -115-
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Post by mdenney on Jan 21, 2007 2:17:47 GMT -5
Part 1 Going to post all from this pay site BRENDA J. CHILD Boarding School Seasons AMERICAN INDIAN FAMILIES 1900-1940 niversity of Nebraska Press, Lincoln and London -iii- Questia Media America, Inc. www.questia.com Publication Information: Book Title: Boarding School Seasons: American Indian Families, 1900-1940. Contributors: Brenda J. Child - author. Publisher: University of Nebraska Press. Place of Publication: Lincoln, NE. Publication Year: 1998. Page Number The lyrics on p. 8 of "Indians" by Mitch Walking Elk, Shaiela Recording Co., 1988, are reprinted with permission of Mitch Walking Elk. Portions of chapters 4 and 5 originally appeared as "Homesickness, Illness and Death: Native American Girls in Government Boarding Schools," in Wings of Gauze: Women of Color and the Experience of Health and Illness, ed. Barbara Bair and Susan Cayleff ( Detroit: Wayne State Univ. Press, 1993). Chapter 7 was originally published as "The Runaways: Student Rebellion at Flandreau and Haskell," Journal of Indian Education ( Arizona State University) 35, no. 3 (spring): 49-57. © 1998 by the University of Nebraska Press. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. ∞ + ⃝ First Bison Books printing: 2000 Most recent printing indicated by the last digit below: 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data. Child, Brenda J., 1959- Boarding school seasons: American Indian families, 1900-1940 / Brenda J. Child p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8032-1480-4 (cl: alk. paper) ISBN 0-8032-6405-4 (pa: alk. paper) 1. Ojibwa youth -- Education. 2. Ojibwa youth -- Correspondence. 3. Ojibwa Indians -- Correspondence. 4. Off-reservation boarding schools -- Kansas -- History. 5. Off-reservation boarding schools -- South Dakota -- History. 6. Haskell Institute -- History. 7. Flandreau Indian School (S.D.) -- History. I. Title. E99.C6C45 1998 370'.89'973--dc21 98-15718 CIP -iv- CONTENTS List of Illustrations vii Acknowledgments ix Introduction: The Legacy of Boarding School Letters xii Chapter 1 Star Quilts and Jim Thorpe 1 2 From Reservation to Boarding School 9 3 Train Time 26 4 Homesickness 43 5 Illness and Death 55 6 Working for the School 69 7 Runaway Boys, Resistant Girls 87 Conclusion 96 Appendices 1 Red Lake Students Who Attended Nonreservation Schools Circa 1929 101 2 Flandreau Enrollment Figures, 1893-1939 108 3 Flandreau Enrollment Distributions by Tribe and by State, 1937-38 110 4 Haskell Institute Cemetery Burials, by Tribal Name on Tombstone 112 Notes 117 Bibliography 135 Index 139 -v- ILLUSTRATIONS Following page 58 1. Jim Thorpe and the Oorang Indian Football Team, 1922 2. Boys in their military-style Haskell uniforms, probably 1890s 3. Haskell students, probably 1890s 4. Haskell students in historical costumes, 1920 5. Haskell students dressed as nurses and soldiers, 1920 6. "Haskell babies" 7. The Sac and Fox Sanitorium, Toledo, Iowa 8. Joseph Rosseau's tombstone, Haskell 9. Flandreau girls in their baking class, circa 1895 10. Sewing class at Flandreau, circa 1900 11. Haskell students repairing an automobile, circa 1925 12. Early photograph of the Haskell band 13. Flandreau. baseball team 14. Annual production of Hiawatha at Haskell, 1922 -vii- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This book would not have been completed without the generosity of many people it gives me pleasure to acknowledge. Professors Linda Kerber, Kenneth Cmiel, Shel Stromquist, Laurence Gelfand, Robert Clinton, and the late Professor Sydney James were wonderful teachers and dissertation readers at the University of Iowa. The D'Arcy McNickle Center for Indian History at the Newberry Library was my other graduate school, and I thank the colleagues and friends I have known over the years through that important place, especially Helen Tanner, John Aubrey, and Fred Hoxie. I received one of the Center's Frances C. Allen Fellowships at a critical moment in my graduate school career, and the connections that grew from Chicago with other Native scholars, especially Kate Shanley, Gordon Henry, and Amy Lonetree, invigorated my own work. Allan Perry and other staff members at the Kansas City Branch of the National Archives were accessible and helpful when I worked in the Bureau of Indian Affairs collections. State historical societies of Iowa, Minnesota, South Dakota, and Kansas offered great assistance to me with documents and photographs. D. A. Oliver and the staff and readers for the University of Nebraska Press expertly contributed their professional skills to the manuscript and always gave sound advice. The late Alphonse and Ethelbert Caswell deserve special mention for their inspiration during the early stages of my research. I have benefited from research grants and fellowships, including a Phillips Grant from the American Philosophical Society; the Laurence Lafore Dissertation Fellowship from the University of Iowa; a Graduate School Faculty Research Award from the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee; an Indian Voices in the Academy Fellowship from the National Endowment for the Humanities and the Newberry Library; and a University of Minnesota Faculty Summer Research Fellowship and a McKnight Summer Fellowship. I am thankful for an extraordinary year during 1992-93 spent as the Katrin Lamon Fellow at the School of American Research (SAR) in Santa Fe, New Mexico, and for the support given to me and my family from our friends Douglas Schwartz, Samantha Williams, Jim Carr, Joan O'Donnell, and the staff of SAR. Thanks to Jane Kepp, the past editor of the School of American Research Press, for a careful reading of my manuscript. Fellows that year David Stuart, Richard Waller, Paul Stoller, and Laura Graham were thoughtful critics, model scholars, and the best dinner companions I have ever known. I will always remember my conversations with the late Professor Alfonso Ortiz and the great personal generosity he extended me when I was in Santa Fe. Leaders and participants in two seminars, The Construction of Gender and Women in American Indian Societies, sponsored by the National Endowment for the Humanities and held at the McNickle Center during the winter of 1995-96 discussed my work with great insight and sensitivity, and I appreciated their commentary and support. Thanks to Patricia Albers, Beatrice Medicine, Raymond Fogelson, Tsianina Lomawaima, Brenda Manuelito, Peter Iverson, Jeff Ostler, Jean O'Brien, Roxanne Gould, Tillie Black Bear, Nancy Maryboy, Mary Denise Thompson, Cheryl Metoyer, Jennifer Denetdale, Charlotte Frisbie, Daniel Wild Cat, Venida Chenault-White, and other members of the seminars. Colleagues and students at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee and now at the University of Minnesota have been generous with their time and ideas. Thanks are due Reginald Horsman and the uw-Milwaukee department of history, and my American Indian Studies companions Michael Wilson, Christine Lowery, and Kimberly Blaeser. Miigwech, sister Kim, for your friendship. I have learned from and am proud of many wonderful students, but perhaps none more than Matthew Wacker, Paula Rabideaux, and Catherine Denial. Frank Miller, Carol Miller, and Jean O'Brien have been great supporters of American Indian Studies years before my arrival at Minnesota, and I thank them for their dedication to our program. The faculty in American Studies allowed me time away from teaching to work on Boarding School Seasons and welcomed me as a new colleague. This book began with my family and was written with them close to my heart. Jeanette Auginash, my maternal grandmother, told me many stories, some of them about boarding school. My father, Vernon Child, put me on the right road and gave me the confidence to become a historian. Their contributions to this book are so fundamental that it would never have occurred to me to begin the research or write it without their presence in my life. Patrick McNamara discovered the letters from my family in the archives and at every step asked thoughtful questions. The final result bears the influence of -x- the other historian in the family. Thank you, Pat. Our son, Francis McNamara, taught me about the depths of parental love for children, an understanding so essential to this book. I continue to be amazed by his own questions and the interest he has taken in our work, especially from someone eight years old. Thanks, Frankie. Family members in Red Lake, sometimes without knowing it, have deeply influenced this project over the years. For their love, courage, conversations, memories, songs, and wild humor, pieces of this book belong to my mother, Florence Child, my aunts Anna Auginash and Amelia Fairbanks, my uncles McKinley Auginash and the late Richard Auginash, and my brother, Brian Child. Miigwech. This book is dedicated with love to the family I am so proud to be part of, the descendants of Jeanette Auginash who today live within the Red Lake Nation of northern Minnesota. -xi- part 2 next link on ( Help not on the 1886 census )
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Post by mdenney on Jan 21, 2007 2:18:16 GMT -5
Part 2
INTRODUCTION The Legacy of Boarding School Letters Letters are at the heart of this story. I followed a strong inclination to retreat from interpretations of established sources in writing this book about a distinctive period in American Indian history. The gift of documents both varied and powerful supported my historical exploration. Boarding school records encompass the familiar "official" data, in addition to school newspapers, oral history collections, photographs, biographies, and letters. I have studied and cited all of these sources, favoring letters written by American Indian people. Publications by the U.S. government, annual reports, and other correspondence that passed between Washington officials and school administrators have been indispensable to historians because they outline the broad contours of federal policy, but these documents fall short of being able to explain American Indian points of view.
School newspapers present an especially intriguing category for analysis, considering that boarding school students and graduates published columns, articles, and letters. Students typically assumed an active role in the mechanics of publication, as when The Indian Leader was issued from their own printing department at Haskell. Newspapers reflected the culture of boarding schools; even articles authored by American Indians were destined for a public audience and must therefore be approached with a measure of skepticism. Again, unpublished sources such as the boarding school letters introduce a less censored opportunity to study Indian motivations, thoughts, and experiences.
Recent scholars writing about the history of Indian education have preferred oral history with living repositories of boarding school information over historical documentation found in archives. Sally McBeth ( 1983), Celia Haig-Brown ( 1988), and K. Tsianina Lomawaima ( 1994) interviewed former students in their significant studies of residential schools in Oklahoma and Canada. 1 McBeth, one of the first tillers in the field, understood boarding schools as cultural symbols
-xii-
which promoted ethnic identity among American Indian people from westcentral Oklahoma. Many of her conversations were with women, current and former boarding school students, teachers, and staff.
K. Tsianina Lomawaima drew from the memories of sixty-one Chilocco alumni from the 1920s and 1930s to write They Called It Prairie Light. Chilocco students from diverse tribal backgrounds made the Oklahoma school "their own," according to Lomawaima, and tribal identity was not erased but rather reinforced through gang loyalty and resistance. Resistance was also a prominent theme of Celia Haig-Brown's study of the Kamloops Indian Residential School in British Columbia, the result of archival research and thirteen interviews.
On an informal basis I, too, spoke with former boarding school students, mostly family friends or relatives in the Ojibwe community at Red Lake in northern Minnesota where I was born. As influential as these conversations were in developing my own ideas and questions about boarding school history, particularly remembering discussions with my grandmother, a former Flandreau student, I never conceived of making interviews a primary component of my own research. What I hoped to find, trained as I was in a very traditional graduate program in American history at the University of Iowa, were documents. Uninspired by the familiar sources for writing about the history of Indian education, and heartened by scholarship that promised to move Indian people to the center stage of a "new Indian history," I set off for the government archives in search of documents that might reflect Indian opinions, emotions, and experiences before, during, and after government boarding school. I was looking for what one critic conceives of as "other destinies, other plots," with American Indian people at the core of the narrative. 2
Returning to Iowa City after my first trip to the archives, I grew confident that I could gather documentation to write the kind of boarding school history that I had long imagined. I found in the archives Indian writings, wonderful documents with the potential to educate me about the aspirations and real struggles of hundreds of people in the early twentieth century. Cached away in dusty boxes filled with the residue of emptied file cabinets from old boarding schools like Flandreau and Haskell were hundreds of letters, unpublished and seldom looked at by historians, written by boarding school students and their families. Their stories were overwhelming. I consider their voices a contribution to "the new Indian history."
What follows is a study of the boarding school experience from the perspective of the American Indian students and their family members who lived in or lived with these institutions for many decades. Letters are fundamental to this narrative and are quoted extensively throughout each chapter, every subject.
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Documentation by American Indians of the boarding school experience is fairly abundant in government archives, but still more information is available for the period after 1900. In light of the richness of the archival material, this study is primarily about the years 1900 to 1940. Ojibwe scholar Paulette Fairbanks Molin has identified older school letters from the nineteenth century at Hampton Institute. Indian students who first arrived at Hampton in 1878 were encouraged to write notes and letters to teachers and staff after they left school. Some of the first Indian students, the Fort Marion prisoners, also left letters and poignantly rendered ledger art. 3 Hampton's archive, as well as Bureau of Indian Affairs repositories, are indeed treasuries for locating writings by American Indians.
Because of my own family's personal history with government boarding schools, I originally conceived of this project as tribal history. Boarding school stories are well known in Indian communities like Red Lake. I hoped to document and assemble a narrative that would be familiar to my family and friends, that many Ojibwe people might recognize. Out of respect for the elders and our grandparents who have passed on, especially those educated in federal boarding schools, I deliberately pursued sources of information about Ojibwe students. The result is that this work, while not exclusively about Ojibwe students and families, does have an Ojibwe point of view.
Students at boarding schools encountered a variety of people, many of them strangers. Ojibwe students were introduced to government teachers, matrons, and bureaucrats, a very small number of whom were American Indian. They also came face to face with Lakotas, Oneidas, and Poncas, and other students from across Indian country. This rich cross-cultural exchange, the pan-Indianness of boarding school life, is what gives texture and dimension to this story. I have included the letters and experiences of Lakotas, Oneidas, and Poncas and other tribes that Ojibwes came to know at school when stories seem important.
This book had its origins in the experiences of beloved family members who were once students at Carlisle and Flandreau. Small messages contained in two short letters, recovered from boxes of Flandreau materials in the government archives, found their way back to my family in Redby, Minnesota, some sixty years after being written. The first letter, mailed from northern Minnesota by my great-grandfather, is special to me, although he died years before I was born. I first knew him through handsome photographs my grandmother kept and family stories, and now I have seen his handwriting and understand something of what his life at Carlisle must have been like. On 17 June 1924, he wrote this short letter from our family home in Redby about his own daughter, who was then at Flandreau.
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Dear sir
will write to you I would like to have my daughter come home this summer Jeanette Jones she is got money to come send her home right way please.
yours truly David Jones
Our family laughed over a second letter, because it was so quintessentially Grandma Jeanette. We always teased her for hoarding her most favorite objects, photographs, new linens, and little presents in a black trunk she kept bedside in the old house in Redby. A short time after her father's letter in 1924, she came back to Redby and worried over a trunk of belongings. This prompted Jeanette to write an official at her old school for help:
Please kindly tell me about my trunk its here at the Post office and one reason is the Depot-Agent said I couldnt get it until I show him the trunk ticket so I told him I never got no ticket for my trunk.
I said the clerks over-there are seeing to it so I dont know what to do about it to get it out from the Depot here in Redby.
Will now close please answer and tell me about it right away and I am really anxious to get it out, as I have been waiting.
Yours truly, Jeanette Jones
Scores of letters in the archives are like these from my own family -- inconsequential, written about situations long forgotten. Letters particularly caught my eye because the authors were relatives, friends of my family, tribal politicians in their youth, or prominent individuals. Flandreau school records were lumped in with agency records, and I found in the collection brief letters written by Charles A. Eastman (Ohiyesa) and the ethnomusicologist Frances Densmore. But the letters I was drawn to were written by everyday people, mostly reservation based but occasionally urban, from many tribes. Their writings are of profound historical significance, as children documented their experiences with homesickness, disease, rebellion, and programs aimed at assimilation, and families coped with separation. A surprising number of letters students had addressed "Dear Mother" or "Dear Dad" wound up in the collection after parents sent them back to administrators to enlighten school officials and to provide evidence of specific complaints.
Parental letters, although often directed to school administrators, were as deeply emotional as one might expect of mothers and fathers who lived apart from their children. They wrote about problems important and minor. They
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wrote in perfect English with beautiful penmanship. Many were like my grandparents, competent in English, but their letters revealed that daily fluency was in a tribal language. Stationery sometimes indicated a third party had done the actual writing, perhaps a local store owner, garage mechanic, or Indian agent had facilitated the exchange of a non-English-speaking parent. Regardless of process or refinement, letters from parents communicated a determined and passionate commitment to children.
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part 3 on next page on ( Help not on 1886 census )
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Post by mdenney on Jan 21, 2007 2:18:50 GMT -5
Part 3
Boarding School Seasons -xvii-
Star Quilts and Jim Thorpe Like most Native Americans of my generation, I first learned about government boarding schools from a grandparent. In the early 1920s, my grandmother, Jeanette Jones Auginash, attended the Flandreau boarding school for Indians in Flandreau, South Dakota. 1 She had been born in 1905 in the Minnesota Ojibwe community called Maquombay, located halfway between the reservation towns of Redby and Ponemah. 2 Except for several years away at school in Flandreau, Grandmother was a lifelong resident of the Red Lake Reservation in northern Minnesota. She was living with her father at the time she went away to school as a teenager, her mother having died several years before. My grandmother was actually a second-generation boarding school student. Her father, David Jones, had attended Lieutenant Richard Henry Pratt's Carlisle school in Pennsylvania, the earliest of the government boarding schools for Indians and the model for subsequent schools such as Flandreau.
My grandmother's recollections of her time at Flandreau, like those of so many former boarding school students, were varied. She took part in Flandreau's version of the outing program, which sent her into a local white household to work as a domestic servant. Indian girls seldom had much enthusiasm for the outing program and its servitude, an attitude shared by my grandmother. She did, however, enjoy the needlework and sewing classes that the boarding school offered as part of its domestic science training. Probably my most enduring image of my grandmother is of her sitting at a sewing machine, stitching seemingly endless quilts and pillowcases for members of our family. I also recall her graceful penmanship, another trademark of the boarding school student. Months after my grandmother's death in 1986, I was happy to see that familiar handwriting again in letters she had written years ago, still preserved -- along with letters her father had written -- in the boarding school records from the
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Flandreau Indian school, one of the institutions I had selected for my own research.
My grandmother's fondest memories of boarding school life involved other students, particularly her many "Sioux" friends, as she referred to them. Flandreau drew heavily from the Upper Midwest for its student population, so Dakotas as well as Ojibwes were numerous there. The local Flandreau Indians, once residents of the Santee Reservation, sent many of their young people to Flandreau over the years, giving the school a particularly strong Dakota influence. My grandmother was an Ojibwe speaker who learned English when she began her schooling, but she also picked up words and phrases in the Dakota language because of her close associations with these Dakota-speaking schoolmates. This peculiarly pan-Indian quality of the boarding schools is not what assimilationists, who were committed to the repression of tribal languages and culture, had in mind when they founded the institutions.
After I learned more about government boarding schools and the young people who lived, studied, and labored in them over the years, my grandmother seemed to me in many ways a fairly typical student of the era, indeed even a normal product of the institution. Her father was a widower, and single parents were inclined to send their children away for schooling between 1900 and 1940, when reservation life was often harsh and unpredictable for children and adults alike. Jeanette disliked the outing program but put to good use some of the domestic skills she learned at school. She also formed close bonds with other boarding school students whom she never forgot, even sixty years after she left Flandreau. After leaving school she had a family, marrying an older Ojibwe man from the Sandy Lake area of Mille Lacs, and easily reintegrated herself into family and tribal life at Red Lake. That she married a man who spoke only Ojibwe and who was almost twenty years her senior -- a traditional, perhaps even old-fashioned, practice for a young Ojibwe woman right out of boarding school -- testifies to the ease of her readjustment to reservation life.
Jeanette and her husband, my grandfather Nawajawan, who had taken the name Fred Auginash when he joined the Minnesota National Guard during World War I, raised their family at Red Lake. Land was plentiful there because Red Lake was one of the few reservations in the United States to escape the allotment process. My grandfather had been swindled of his allotment at White Earth, where many Mille Lacs Ojibwe had been pressured to remove. The state of Minnesota seized his property after claiming he owed back taxes on the land. 3 Other family members remained at Sandy Lake, including my grandfather's half-brother, Sam Yankee, who became a community leader and was a respected tribal chairman at Mille Lacs during the 1960s.
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At Red Lake, Fred Auginash worked primarily as a commercial fisherman but also seasonally hunted, trapped, and gathered wild rice to supplement his income, as so many Anishinaabe in northern Minnesota have done over the generations. In later years he was employed at the nearby sawmill in Redby. Jeanette gave birth to five surviving children, beginning with Amelia in 1925, when she was twenty years old. Then came Richard, McKinley, Anna, and finally, in 1938, Florence -- the baby of the family and my mother. The oldest child, Amelia Josephine, born just two years after Jeanette left boarding school, was named after one of my grandmother's dearest friends at Flandreau, a Blackfeet girl from Montana.
As was customary in the Indian community, my grandparents also helped raise several of their grandchildren and sometimes provided a home for other extended family members. They taught their children about the northern seasons, hard work, generosity, the value of relatives, and they imparted stories and songs, all in the Ojibwe language. A sense of humor was a family requirement, but no one was more outrageous than McKinley, who inherited his father's enthusiasm for ricing, hunting, sugar bush, singing, and moccasin game. My mother, aunts, and uncles had an Ojibwe education and rode a bus to a day school on the reservation. 4
Many of my grandmother's contemporaries, cousins and friends she knew from Red Lake, White Earth, and Mille Lacs, attended boarding schools. By the time she came home from Flandreau in 1923, other Red Lakers had also returned to the reservation from government schools in North and South Dakota, southwestern Minnesota, Wisconsin, Nebraska, Kansas, and Pennsylvania (see appendix 1). More Red Lake students attended the Flandreau boarding school in South Dakota than any other institution, but Red Lake students were also numerous at the Wahpeton school in North Dakota and at Haskell in Lawrence, Kansas. More than twenty members of the Red Lake band returned to the reservation from the well-known Carlisle school in Pennsylvania, some with memories of their Oklahoma classmate Jim Thorpe, the most famous Indian athlete of the twentieth century.
Joe Guyon, Xavier Downwind, Daniel Needham, and other Ojibwe young men became acquainted with Thorpe at Carlisle. 5 My great-grandfather David Jones shared Thorpe's passion for football, one of the numerous sports at which the Olympic athlete and New York Giant would excel. In 1912, Thorpe served as captain of the football and basketball teams at Carlisle and won the decathlon and the pentathlon during the Olympic Games in Stockholm. A decade after Carlisle, many of the former boarding school students were still united by football and friendship. During the 1920s, an all-Indian professional
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football team organized by Thorpe became a popular draw in the newly formed American Professional Football Association. In 1922, Thorpe, my grandfather, and men of various tribes played together on this football team, known as the Oorang Indians. Though Indians came from all over the United States to try out for the team, the best players were the experienced athletes who graduated from Carlisle.
Haskell Institute in Lawrence, Kansas, was also widely recognized for its football team. In an era when regulations were relaxed and it was not uncommon for older students to be enrolled at boarding schools, Haskell played against a number of college teams, including Notre Dame, Kansas, Nebraska, Bucknell, and Michigan State. In 1926, the star of the Haskell football team was a young Cherokee, Mayes McLain, who later became a fullback at the University of Iowa. Interest in the sport at Haskell was so great that individual contributors from several tribes -- especially the newly oil-rich Osages -- raised $185,000 to build a massive football stadium in Lawrence that was dedicated with great fanfare on 30 October 1926. 6 In order to inaugurate this first football stadium in the country funded completely by Indian donations, representatives from a reported seventy-five tribes camped on the Haskell grounds, held a parade, and celebrated the Haskell victory 36-0 over Bucknell with a huge intertribal pow-wow.
Although many have associated the boarding schools, especially Carlisle and Haskell, with athletics and winning football teams, the female legacy from schools like Carlisle, the star blanket, has found a lasting place of its own in the cultures and traditions of most tribes from the upper Midwest. Many Indian girls first saw the dazzling design, known as the Star of Bethlehem among Anglo quilters, at Carlisle. Since the girls brought the domestic art of quilting back to their tribes from boarding school, Native American women have become renowned for their skill and decorative quilts are now the most highly prized item at give-aways during tribal celebrations. 7 Quilts are still frequently presented to newlyweds and to parents of newborn babies, and they may even accompany the Indian dead on their final journey, when caskets are draped with a star blanket.
In many ways the star blanket is symbolic of the close relationship Indian tribes had with government boarding schools since the late nineteenth century. Like the star blanket, the government boarding school has become part of our collective, pan-Indian identity. In the process of attending these schools, Indians became more alike. They learned bits of each other's languages, and everyone learned English. Graduates married into other tribes. Summer celebrations on reservations became increasingly intertribal. New political alliances were forged. And for better or worse, the schools became part of our histories.
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The boarding school experience has been explored by a number of Native American writers, beginning with Metís scholar D'Arcy McNickle's early short stories up to the more recent poetry of Turtle Mountain author Louise Erdrich. In Train Time ( 1936), D'Arcy McNickle's sensitive story about a young boy being sent away to a boarding school in Oregon with a group of children from his reservation, McNickle poignantly described the emotions present at the time of departure when he wrote, "None had wanted to go. They said they liked it at home,' or they were 'afraid' to go away, or they would 'get sick' in a strange country; and the parents were no help. They too were frightened and uneasy." 8
Evidence suggests these were feelings McNickle and his family had experienced firsthand. When McNickle was a child on the Flathead Reservation in Montana, his parents were divorced and, despite impassioned pleas by his mother, the courts ordered that McNickle was to be sent to the Chemawa Indian Boarding School in Oregon. In 1913, at the age of nine, McNickle escaped from the train station that was to be his point of departure for school. Soon after, his mother and stepfather were arrested for kidnapping because of their failure to send young D'Arcy to school. 9
McNickle's parents were eventually released from custody and the kidnapping charges were dropped due to lack of evidence, but in 1914 the boy was finally sent to Chemawa, a government boarding school in Salem, Oregon. Many years later, in the book he coauthored with Richard Fey, Indians and Other Americans: Two Ways of Life Meet, McNickle mentioned Chemawa and the military rigor of the boarding school institution that sought to eradicate "all traits of Indian culture." McNickle wrote:
The first off-reservation boarding schools, Carlisle and Chemawa, were founded by army men encouraged by Pratt's successful experiences with Indian prisoners in Florida. Both were well away from reservations and were designed to remove their students from their homes and tribal cultures for extended periods of time so that they could be instilled with American values, culture, and aspirations. 10
As McNickle pointed out, the boarding school experiment began in the late nineteenth century after the Arapaho, Cheyenne, Comanche, and Kiowa prisoners who were incarcerated at Fort Marion in Saint Augustine, Florida, became subject to Lieutenant Pratt's newly devised "civilization" program. The Native prisoners at Fort Marion were introduced to reading and arithmetic in a classroom setting and worked part time at odd jobs in Saint Augustine. This simple program, half days in the classroom and the remainder of the day at
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some form of manual labor, became the forerunner of the standard boarding school curriculum with its emphasis upon vocational training in the form of the "outing program."
The prisoners were freed from Fort Marion in 1879 after three years of incarceration. After their captivity ended, seventeen of the former prisoners and Lieutenant Pratt went on to Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute in Virginia, the pioneering educational school for African Americans, in order to continue this novel experiment in Indian education. Though Pratt left the Hampton program after receiving government funding to found the Carlisle school in Pennsylvania, Native students continued at Hampton for many years. More than thirteen hundred Indians attended Hampton between 1878 and 1923, including fifty-one Ojibwe students. 11
In 1879, in the remnants of an old cavalry barracks, the Carlisle school was born. Captivity played a role in the early history of that institution as well. After the Native American resistance movements in the Southwest collapsed, several hundred Chiricahua Apaches -- men, women, and children -- were taken as prisoners of war and incarcerated in Florida and Alabama. During their imprisonment the Apache children were removed and sent to Carlisle to be educated and introduced to Pratt's civilization program. Descendants of the original Chiricahua prisoners have pointed to the removal of the children as the bleakest period during the twenty-two years of the Chiricahua incarceration, especially because diseases such as tuberculosis frequently ravaged the Apache children sent to boarding schools. 12
For many Indian children who lived and worked at boarding schools, often enduring many unhappy years before they again saw their homes or families, running away became a common occurrence, indeed even a universal thread that united boarding school students through the decades. The institution was designed to separate children from all that was familiar to them -- their families, tribes, languages, traditions, their very identities. Beginning with the Apache students at Carlisle in 1879, government boarding schools isolated children from their loved ones. Ironically, long-term boarding school students became "runaways" in order to maintain family as well as tribal ties.
In the late nineteenth century, Lieutenant Pratt recruited students from the western states to Pennsylvania, and Ojibwes and other tribal people attended the school during its early years. In 1917, the final year Carlisle was in operation, fiftyeight tribes were represented in the student body, with Ojibwe students in the majority. More children from tribes in the Upper Midwest were sent to boarding schools when the system expanded. In 1899, twenty-five residential schools were in operation, including the three institutions selected for this study. 13
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The Flandreau Indian school opened in eastern South Dakota in 1893 and was primarily for Ojibwe and Dakota students in its early years. It was considered a nonreservation boarding school, though an agency was located at Flandreau. During my grandmother's tenure the school was still called "Riggs Institute," after a nineteenth-century missionary named Alfred L. Riggs, but students and their families usually referred to it as "Flandreau." Flandreau offered an education up to something comparable to the eighth or ninth grade until 1931, when it began an accredited high school curriculum. Flandreau's student population grew more diverse over the decades, as other boarding schools in the United States closed. It has the distinction of being the country's oldest boarding school in continuous operation, and it still receives funding from the Bureau of Indian Affairs. The Pipestone boarding school, Flandreau's sister school directly across the state line near the sacred pipestone mines of southwestern Minnesota, offered a similar curriculum and began admitting pupils the same year Flandreau opened, 1893. The proximity of the two schools allowed their students frequent interaction.
Founded in 1884 in Lawrence, Kansas, the Haskell Institute often listed "Chippewas" as the second largest tribe enrolled at the school. Within a decade Haskell offered training beyond the standard eight-year program of most boarding schools and was regarded as one of the select schools in the Indian school system. 14 Of the three schools, Haskell was by far the most intertribal institution. Indian children were sent to Lawrence from many reservations and communities in the Midwest, Southwest, and from Oklahoma.
The Haskell and Flandreau records proved to be especially rich sources of information about boarding school life during the assimilation years. 15 After the turn of the century, English literacy rates increased among Indian people and record-keeping from boarding schools became more reliable. In letters, students described their bouts of homesickness, their regimens of work and study, their instances of rebellion, and often their struggles with serious diseases such as tuberculosis. The letters sent from Indian parents to the schools are just as revealing regarding problems parents confronted: the agony of separation from children, their concerns about health care and diet in the schools, and sometimes their despair when children grew sick or died at school.
The boarding school letters, sometimes poignant and always candid, establish a complex history of the Native Americans who were involved with residential school education. In part, it is the history of people who experienced forced assimilation, and who to varying degrees lost control over important aspects of their own lives. This was true for students in the schools, and it was also true for parents and other family members in the community who repeatedly
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Part 4 to continue waiting for permission from site
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Post by mdenney on Jan 21, 2007 3:32:25 GMT -5
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Post by mdenney on Jan 21, 2007 18:09:51 GMT -5
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Post by mdenney on Jan 21, 2007 19:30:18 GMT -5
CARLISLE INDIAN SCHOOL STUDENTS Abenaki - Blackfoot ABENAKI Robert T. Abenaki Flora F. Masta, Abenaki Walter E. Paul, Abenaki Myrtle Polnap, Abenaki Estelle Tahamont, Abenaki Robert Tahamont, Abenaki ALASKAN/ALEUT Esquiman, Alaskan Anotosia Achwok, Alaskan Pariscovia Alexander, Alaskan Dora Allen, Alaskan Edward Anyelook, Alaskan Cecilia M. Baronovich Balenti, Alaskan Cecilia M. Baronovich, Alaskan Maggie Brown, Alaskan Ida Bruie, Alaskan Margaret Burgess, Alaskan Sydney Burr, Alaskan Katie Callsen, Alaskan Katrina E. Callsen, Alaskan Minnie J. Callsen, Alaskan Flora Campbell, Alaskan Michael Chabitoney, Alaskan Marie M. Cloud, Alaskan Annie Coodlalook, Alaskan Cookinglook, Alaskan George Cushing, Alaskan Florence Welles Davis, Alaskan Paul G. Dirks, Alaskan Archie Dundas, Alaskan Kathryne Dyakanoff, Alaskan Catherine Dykanoff, Alaskan Isabelle Espendez, Alaskan Katie Callsen Fisher, Alaskan Flora Campbell Fitzgerald, Alaskan James D. Flannery, Alaskan Charles Foster, Alaskan William Foster, Alaskan Helen Fratias, Alaskan Pariscovia Friendoff, Alaskan Eugene C. Geffee, Alaskan Isaac R. Gould, Alaskan David Guthrie, Alaskan Clara Hall, Alaskan Mary Kadashan Hall, Alaskan Mrs Robert Hall, Alaskan Thomas Hanbury, Alaskan Fred Harris, Alaskan Lottie Hilton, Alaskan Peter Jackson, Alaskan Samuel Jackson, Alaskan William S. Jackson, Alaskan Benson John, Alaskan Mary Kadashan, Alaskan James Keith, Alaskan Paul S. Kendall, Alaskan Katie Callsen Kisher, Alaskan Kookliglook, Alaskan Carl Lieder, Alaskan Elwood Mathers, Alaskan Maria McCloud, Alaskan Max Mixsook, Alaskan Mary Moon, Alaskan Susie Moon, Alaskan Oscar Naterook, Alaskan George Nocochluke, Alaskan Mary Moon Orsen, Alaskan Alonzo Patton, Alaskan Lonnie Patton, Alaskan Kendall Paul, Alaskan Louis F. Paul, Alaskan Samuel K. Paul, Alaskan William Paul, Alaskan Henry Phillips, Alaskan Anna Rankin, Alaskan Dora Rankin, Alaskan John Rankin, Alaskan Dorothy Reinken, Alaskan Olga Reinken, Alaskan Dora Reinkin, Alaskan Eudocia M. Sedick, Alaskan Katharyn Dyakanoff Sellers, Alaskan Dora Reinkin Shanga, Alaskan Joseph Sheehan, Alaskan William Sheehan, Alaskan Theodore Shelakoff, Alaskan Dora Reinkin Shongo, Alaskan Joseph Simpson, Alaskan David Skuviuk, Alaskan Elizabeth Snow, Alaskan Walter Snyder, Alaskan Lucy Spalding, Alaskan Mabel Stock, Alaskan Irene Suveroff, Alaskan Sosipatra Suveroff, Alaskan Sophia Tatoff, Alaskan Polly Titikoff, Alaskan Palageia Tulikoff, Alaskan Polly Tutikoff, Alaskan Patrick Verney, Alaskan Ira Wagner, Alaskan Vera Wagner, Alaskan Elizabeth S. Walker, Alaskan Elizabeth Walker-Nelson, Alaskan Florence Welles, Alaskan Florence L. Wells, Alaskan Florence Davis Wells, Alaskan Paul White, Alaskan George Willard, Alaskan Anna Vereskin, Aleut ANADARKO Andrew Canover, Anadarko Andrew Conover, Anadarko Harry Shirley, Anadarko APACHE Al-ze-say, Apache Asa, Apache Augustine, Apache Ba-Chi-Si, Apache Dorathy, Apache Eskuzeh, Apache Ga-yar-lay, Apache Grasshopper, Apache Gu-yar-lay, Apache Ha-ba-day, Apache Hoo-sa-tau-lus, Apache In-to-neh, Apache Janette, Apache Ki-ya-eve, Apache Lavender, Apache Little Boy, Apache Ma-chu-she-yazhi, Apache Marcellus, Apache Margaret, Apache Nahtoke, Apache Naichez, Apache Odellah, Apache Odlehah, Apache Roderick, Apache Romana, Apache Shulay, Apache Weethea, Apache Hattie Acklin, Apache Setino Ah-ka-bak, Apache Ezra Anigoon, Apache Naameco Antonio, Apache Lawrence Asa, Apache Duncan Balachu, Apache Godfry Balatcha, Apache Colton Baleatza, Apache Guy Basket, Apache Given Bat, Apache Eben Beads, Apache Charles Belin, Apache David Belin, Apache Tennyson Berry, Apache Edna Betahkatoch, Apache Jason Betzinez, Apache Marcellus Bezahun, Apache Oliver pregnant dogaict, Apache Ernie Black, Apache William Black, Apache Lorenzo Bonds, Apache Susie Bonds, Apache Lorenzo Bonito, Apache Constant Bread, Apache Little Bruce, Apache John Bullock, Apache Michael Bums, Apache Michael Burns, Apache Seth Cantanita, Apache Nellie Carey, Apache Nellie Cary, Apache Albert Cassadore, Apache Norman Cassadore, Apache Ambrose Chache, Apache Horace Chatto, Apache Joe Chidden, Apache Joel Chidder, Apache Romona Chihuahua, Apache Hugh Chee, Chiricahua Apache Asa Daklugie, Apache Simon Dakosu, Apache Thomas Dasalay, Apache Hanna Dechizien, Apache Wilbur Deehism, Apache Titus Deer Head, Apache Randall Deluhey, Apache Eva Dezay, Apache Charles Dickens, Apache Katie Dinta, Apache Hiram Doctor, Apache Clay Domieah, Apache Podger Dudzardo, Apache Brian Early Bird, Apache Alfred Eatah, Apache Alfred Elmer, Apache Alphonso Eloista, Apache Humphrey Escharzay, Apache Rudolph Esenday, Apache Fred K. Eskelsejah, Apache Little Eunice, Apache Joseph Ezhuna, Apache Owen Fire, Apache Owen Firy, Apache Roland Fish, Apache Charles Foster, Apache Ada Fox Catcher, Apache James Fox Catcher, Apache Talbot Goday, Apache Frank Good, Apache Justin Head, Apache Ernest Hodges, Apache Ernest P. Hogee, Apache Mark Hopkins, Apache Simon Humphrey, Apache Richard Imach, Apache Eva Inosaien, Apache Geoffrey Iskie, Apache Charles Istel, Apache Beulah Istone, Apache Allen Jadode, Apache Naomi Kahten, Apache Judith Kainkah, Apache Caleb Keckjolay, Apache Warren Kedlistie, Apache Isabel Kelcusay, Apache Mabel Kelcusay, Apache Samuel Keno, Apache Myra Kiecha, Apache Ralph King, Apache Richard Kissitti, Apache Anna Kittail, Apache Bertha Klinekoli, Apache Maggie Lauethla, Apache Bruce Little Apache Dubois Little Boy, Apache Luis Little, Apache Dexter Loco, Apache Laban Loco Jim, Apache Maggie Louethla, Apache Martin Machukay, Apache Marg. Madasthilah, Apache Henry Mahtoki, Apache Gail Marko, Apache Sibyl Marko, Apache Henry Marmon, Apache Donald McIntosh, Apache Thomas Morgan, Apache Lulu Nabohugo, Apache Susie Nachkea, Apache Vincent Nahtailsh, Apache Ralph Naltwey, Apache Laura Nalzahash, Apache Ruth Nantasnaggil, Apache Vincent Natalish, Apache Mable Navodokieh, Apache Clement Noadloda, Apache Mary North, Apache Knox Nostlin, Apache Sanson Novan, Apache Anthony Nuske, Apache Peter Ocotea, Apache Hugh Onee, Apache Henry Ouka, Apache Jeannette Pahgosta, Apache Janette Pahgostatum, Apache Bruce Patterson, Apache Miriam Patton, Apache Festus Pelone, Apache Daniel Philips, Apache Jonas Place, Apache Phillip Pratt, Apache Gilbert Pusher, Apache Susie Reed, Apache Jason Retzinez, Apache Juan Ruiz, Apache Louis B. Russell, Apache Ah-ko-bak Se-tine, Apache Clement Seamilzay, Apache Annette Seuisson, Apache Justin Shedee, Apache Frederick Skahsojah, Apache Hoke Smith, Apache Norman Smith, Apache Oswald Smith, Apache Marion Sodda, Apache Alonzo Spieche, Apache Leon Spieche, Apache Lambert Stone, Apache Neil Suison, Apache Annette Suisson, Apache Olida Tapenaisihelinah, Apache Mary North Tasso, Apache George Thomas, Apache Morgan Toprock, Apache Eric Tortillo, Apache Rachel Tsikahda, Apache Burdette Tsisnah, Apache Lucy Tsisnah, Apache Parker West, Apache Clement Woadloda, Apache Cotton Wood, Apache Lucia Yaitsah, Apache Margaret Yates, Apache Aaron Yatesek, Apache Joseph Yeahpau, Apache Helen Yotsaya, Apache Eric Yucy, Apache Dock Yukatanache, Apache Carl Yukkanina, Apache Allen Yuzos, Apache Penelope Zaca, Apache Calvin Zhonne, Apache Viola Zich, Apache ARAPAHO Grant, Arapaho Left Hand, Arapaho Minnie, Arapaho Clay Aisworth, Arapaho James Antelope, Arapaho Annie Bearing, Arapaho Paul Boynton, Arapaho Jack Bull Bear, Arapaho Bella Cahoe, Arapaho Tabitha Carrol, Arapaho Debetta Cheyenne Chief, Arapaho Guy Cooley, Arapaho Harry Cryer, Arapaho Dorcas Earl, Arapaho Casper Edson, Arapaho Theresa Filter, Arapaho Moses Friday, Arapaho Lydia Gardner, Arapaho Lydia Gardner Geboe, Arapaho Lydia Harrington, Arapaho Frank Henderson, Arapaho Edward Hoag, Arapaho Henry Howlodges, Arapaho Mary Kowlodges, Arapaho Grant Left Hand, Arapaho Rosa Lewis, Arapaho Albert Little Wolf, Arapaho Anna Little Raven, Arapaho Susan Little Shield, Arapaho Jane Lumpfoot, Arapaho Benajah Miles, Arapaho John D. Miles, Arapaho Beau Neal, Arapaho Dickens Nor, Arapaho Henry North, Arapaho Theodore North, Arapaho Julia Old Camp, Arapaho James Pawnee, Arapaho Hugh Pipe, Arapaho Cora Poor Bear, Arapaho Clarence Powder Face, Arapaho Phillip R. Rabbitt, Arapaho Anna Raven, Arapaho Matthew Red Pipe, Arapaho Minnie L. Robe, Arapaho Eva Rogers, Arapaho Henry Rowlodges, Arapaho Clarence A. Smith, Arapaho Jessie Spread Hands, Arapaho Ella Stander, Arapaho Yellow Star Eyes, Arapaho Carl Sweezy, Arapaho Bessie Tall Bear, Arapaho Leah Road Troeller, Arapaho Daniel Tucker, Arapaho Clever Warden, Arapaho Albert White Wolf, Arapaho Arnold Woolworth, Arapaho Eleck Yellow Man, Arapaho Glick Yellow Man, Arapaho Minnie Yellow Bear, Arapaho ARICKAREE/ARIKARA Stella V. Bear, Arickaree /Arikara Morgan Crows Ghost, Arickaree /Arikara Olive Duckett, Arickaree /Arikara Rhoda Edison, Arickaree /Arikara Mabel Little Star, Arickaree /Arikara Polly Plenty Fox, Arickaree /Arikara Ella Ripley Rickert, Arickaree /Arikara Ella F. Rickert, Arickaree /Arikara Alexander Sage, Arickaree /Arikara Carl Silk, Arickaree /Arikara Albert W. Simpson, Arickaree /Arikara Hattie Sitting Bear, Arickaree /Arikara Lottie R. Styles, Arickaree /Arikara Mary Wilkinson, Arickaree /Arikara ASSINIBOIN Quincy Adams, Assiniboin Susie Baker, Assiniboin William Ball, Assiniboin Cloud Bird, Assiniboin Jeannette Buckles, Assiniboin Moses Carson, Assiniboin Bird Cloud, Assiniboin Robert Emmett, Assiniboin Lucy Enterlodge, Assiniboin Sarah Flynn, Assiniboin Thomas Flynn, Assiniboin Vista Gray Ring, Assiniboin Vista Gray Ring, Assiniboin Clark Gregg, Assiniboin Charles M. Henderson, Assiniboin Addie Hovermale, Assiniboin Peter Howe, Assiniboin James King, Assiniboin Sarah Flynn Manning, Assiniboin Ammi Medicine, Assiniboin Charles Mitchell, Assiniboin Thomas Mooney, Assiniboin Wesson Murdock, Assiniboin Ollie Nichols, Assiniboin Lizzie Oldrock, Assiniboin Joseph Parnell, Assiniboin Christine Red Stone, Assiniboin Mamie Ryan, Assiniboin Mamie Shade Ryan, Assiniboin Mayme Ryan, Assiniboin Rose Ryan, Assiniboin Mamie Ryan Shade, Assiniboin Lizzie Wirth Smith, Assiniboin George Suis, Assiniboin Christine Wirth West, Assiniboin DeWitt Wheeler, Assiniboin Christine Wirth, Assiniboin Elizabeth Wirth, Assiniboin Tenie Wirth, Assiniboin BANNOCK Ella Ashbough, Bannock Charles Barrett, Bannock Edith A. Bartlett, Bannock Eunice Bartlett, Bannock Georgiana Bartlett, Bannock Ida E. Bartlette, Bannock Ida George, Bannock Emma LaVatta Kuch, Bannock Emma LaVatta, Bannock Elizabeth Lavatta, Bannock Minnie Yandall LeSieur, Bannock Anna Parker Mathews, Bannock Anna Parker, Bannock Minnie Yandall, Bannock BLACKFOOT Nellie E. Lillard, Blackfoot LINK BELOW- members.aol.com/tawodi/carlisle/page1.htm
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